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NORMAL 



Language Lessons. 



/> 



Sf J: " SORNBERGER, Ph.D., 

TEACHER OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE, PHYSICS, AND 
HISTORY, IN THE 

State Normal and Training School, 

CORTLAND, K Y. 






f 



o 



■; 




SYRACUSE, N. Y. : 

C. W. BARDEEN, PUBLISHER. 

1884. 



-&$* 



Copyright, 1884, by C. W. Bardeen. 



. 



n& 







PREFACE. 



The following pages are a compilation of 
matter from various works, with class-room 
notes by the author and others, constituting an 
outline of the study of the English language as 
taught in the state Normal School at Cortland, 
K Y. 

That the sentence or proposition is the unit of 
language is the principle which underlies the 
arrangement of subject-matter. The aim of this 
work is simplicity and logical sequence, hence 
the sentence or unit is studied before the ele- 
ments which compose that unit. Words do not 
convey thoughts except as they are joined in the 
proposition. Only when a thorough under- 
standing of the sentence, its forms and relations, 
is obtained, should the elements which compose 
that sentence be studied. To illustrate : Were 
you to give an object lesson on " the cat" you 
would scarcely be expected first to dissect the 
cat and then bring it before the class a piece at 
a time, a bone, a muscle, an eye, etc., making an 
extensive series of lessons in order to obtain the 



IV PREFACE. 



idea of a cat. No, you would go before the 
class with the living cat and obtain a clearer and 
more practical notion of a cat in fifteen minutes 
than the other process could give in a year. 
Why dissect the sentence for your classes and 
bring it before them piecemeal if you would not 
do so with the animal ? Common sense will 
do as well in the one case as the other. Let 
the object lessons be given to beginners, in the 
study of language as well as of animals etc., and 
reserve the anatomical work for the more 
advanced and experienced pupil. Let pupils 
study language more and grammar less. 

When the pupil has gained a knowledge of 
the sentence, its forms, relations, and elements, 
then and not till then is he prepared for the 
study of etymology. 

In the foregoing pages, references are given, 
that the pupil may compare the definitions of 
the authors referred to, with those here given. 



WORKS OF REFERENCE. 



1. Fowler's Revised English Grammar. (Edition of 1877.) 

2. Kerl's Common School Grammar. (Edition of 1878.) 

3. Brown's Revised English Grammar. (Edition of 1883.) 

4. Colegrove's Complete Scientific Grammar. (Edition 

of 1879.) 

5. Greene's English Grammar. 

6. Greene's Analysis. (Edition of 1874.) 

7. Butler's Practical Grammar. 

8. Harvey's English Grammar, revised. 

9. Reed and Kellogg's Higher Lessons in English. 

10. Whitney's Essentials of English Grammar. 

11. Gibb's Philological Studies. (Edition of 1857.) 

12. Bain's English Grammar on a Logical Method. 

13. Goold Brown's Grammar of Grammars. (Edition of 
1871.) 

14. Angus' English Tongue. 

15. Becker's German Grammar. 

16. Practical Grammar of the English Language, by Noah 
Webster. (Edition of 1807.) 

17. Morris' English Grammar. 

18. Clark's English Grammar. 



Systematic Analysis 



(Or, the Arrangement of Sentences in Classes.) 



1. Thought expressed is language. 

Angus, §1, p. 1. 

2. Thought expressed in words is a sentence. 

Fowler, p. 629, -Angus, p. 329. 

3. A sentence consists of two parts. 

(a.) That part of a sentence which repre- 
sents that of which something is as- 
serted is the subject. 

(b.) That part of a sentence which asserts 
is the predicate. 
Greene's Anal., p. 25.— Kerl, p. 232.— Butler, p. 158. 

4. A combination of subject and predicate is 
a proposition* 

Brown's Revised, p. 40. — Kerl, p. 229. — Greene's Anal. 15. 
—Butler, p. 158. 

5. A sentence which forms a part of a more 
comprehensive sentence is a clause. 

Kerl, p. 229.— Greene's Anal., p. 167.— Whitney's Essen., 
pp. 190 and 194. 

*A proposition is also a sentence. A proposition consists of but 
one such combination, while the sentence may consist of one or 
more than one. In imperative expressions it is allowable to con- 
sider the subject as implied in the predicate. 



8 NOKMAL LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

6. A sentence which simply expresses a state- 
ment is a declarative sentence. 

Kerl, p. 229.— Greene's Anal., p. 25. 

7. A sentence which simply expresses a ques- 
tion is an interrogative sentence. 

Kerl, p. 229. — Greene's Anal., p. 25. 

8. A sentence which simply expresses a com- 
mand, entreaty or wish, is an imperative sen- 
tence. 

Kerl, p. 229. — Greene's Anal. p. 25. 

9. A sentence which expresses an exclamation 
is an exclamatory sentence. 

Kerl, p. 229.— Greene's Anal., p. 25. 

10. A sentence whose clauses differ in form of 
expression is a mixed sentence. 

11. Sentences from form of expression are, 

1. Declarative. 

2. Interrogative. 

3. Imperative. 

4. Exclamatory. 

5. Mixed. 

12. A sentence which consists of but one prop- 
osition is a simple sentence. 

Fowler, p. 512.— Whitney, p. 180. 

13. A sentence which consists of more than 
one proposition is a compound sentence. 

Fowler, pp. 512, and 633.— Gibbs, p. 114. 



SYSTEMATIC ANALYSIS. 9 

14. Sentences from number of propositions 

are, 

1. Simple. 

2. Compound. 

15. A chief or leading clause of a compound 
sentence is & principal clause. 

Whitney, p. 190 

16. A dependent clause of a compound sen- 
tence is a subordinate clause. 

Whitney, p. 190. 
IT. Clauses from rank are, 

1. Principal. 

2. Subordinate. 

18. Clauses of the same rank whether princi 
pal or subordinate are coordinate. 

Greene's Anal., p. 15. — Whitney, p. 195. 

19. A sentence which consists of two or more 
principal clauses is a compound sentence by co- 
ordination. 

Fowler, p. 633. 

20. A sentence which consists of one princi- 
pal and one or more dependent clauses is a com- 

jpound sentence by subordination. 
Fowler, p. 633. 

21. Compound sentences from the relation of 
clauses are, 

1. Compound by coordination. 

2. Compound by subordination. 



10 NORMAL LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

22. A compound sentence by coordination, one 
of whose clauses is simply added to the other is- 
a copulate sentence. 

Greene's Anal. p. 116. — Fowler, p. 633. 

23. *A compound sentence by coordination, 
whose clauses are opposed or contrasted in 
meaning is an adversative sentence. 

Greene's Anal., p. 116.— Gibbs, p. 141.— Fowler, p. 633. 

24. A compound sentence by coordination one 
of whose clauses denotes a reason, effect, or in- 
ference, is an illative sentence. 

Gibbs, p. 142. 

25. Compound sentences by coordination are r 

1. Copulate. 

2. Adversative. 

3. Illative. 

26 f A subordinate clause which performs the 
office of a Jname is a substantive clause. 

Whitney, pp. 60, and 192, and 195.— Clark, p. 43. 

27. i| A subordinate clause which limits the ap- 
plication of a substantive, is an adjective clause. 
Fowler, p. 635.— Whitney, p. 195. 

*An adversative sentence may be either negative, restrictive 
or alternative. 

fSubstantive clauses may be, 

1. Subject of proposition. 4. As complement of a 

2. Object of proposition. relation word. 

3. In predicate. 5. In apposition. 

%A. word which performs the office of a name is a substantive 
word. 

||A word which modifies the application of a substantive is an, 
adjective word. 



: SYSTEMATIC ANALYSIS. II 

28. *A subordinate clause not a substantive, 
which modifies the meaning of a predicate or of 
any modifier except a substantive, is an adverb- 
ial clause. 

Fowler, p. 635.— Whitney, p. 196. 

29. Subordinate clauses from office are, 

1. Substantive. 

2. Adjective. 

3. Adverbial. 

Synoptic View of Systematic Analysis. 
The Sentence. 

I. From form of expression. 

1. Declarative. 

2. Interrogative. 

3. Imperative. 

4. Exclamatory. 
5\ Mixed. 

II. From number of propositions. 

1. Simple. 

2. Compound. 

(a.) From relation of clauses. 

1. Compound by coordination. 
(a.) Copulate. 
(b.) Adversative, 
(c.) Illative. 

*A word not a substantive, which modifies the meaning of a 
predicate or of any modifier except a substantive, is an adverbial 
word. 



12 N0KMAL LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

2. Compound by subordination. 
(a.) Principal clause, 
(b.) Subordinate clause. 
I. Substantive. 

1. Subject. 

2. Object. 

3. In predicate. 

4. Complement of a 

relation word. 

5. In apposition. 
II. Adjective. 

III. Adverbial. 



^Stf^uctural Analysis 



(Or, Analysis of sentences as to elements.) 



1. That part of a sentence which represents 
that of which something is asserted is the sub- 
ject (or logical subject.) 

2. That part of a sentence which asserts is the 
predicate (or logical predicate.) 

N. B. — In this analysis the terms logical subject and 
predicate are used. 

3. An element which consists of a single word 
or a word and its modifiers is a word element. 

Greene's Anal. 14, and 22. 

4. A clause is a clause element. 

Greene's Anal. 22, and 166. 

5. An element which consists of one part 
which represents and another which denotes 
relation is a phrase element. 

Greene's Anal. 127.— Whitney, 190. 
E. g. of Boston, — to write, — can walk, — is 
good, — to see the sun. 

6. Elements from form are, 

(a.) Word, 
(b.) Clause, 
(c.) Phrase. 



14 NOEMAL LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

7. A subject taken without any modifying* 

element is a grammatical subject. 

N. B. When there are no modifying elements the log- 
ical subject or predicate is the same as the grammatical. 
Greene's Anal. 76. 

8. A predicate taken without any modifying 
element is a grammatical predicate. 

Greene's Anal. 76. 

9. A grammatical subject is a subjective ele- 
ment. 

10. A grammatical predicate is a predicative 
element. 

11. Whatever is used to limit the application 
of a grammatical subject is an attributive ele- 
ment. 

Greene's Anal. 12. — Bain 166. 

12. Whatever is used to modify the meaning 
of a grammatical predicate is an objective ele- 
ment. 

Fowler, 630.— Becker, 251. 

N. B. Objective element includes adverbial 
elements. 

13. Elements from office are, 

(a.) Subjective, 
(b.) Predicative, 
(c.) Attributive, 
(d.) Objective. 

*Any element which modifies is a modifying element. 



STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS. 15 

14. The grammatical subject and predicate 
are principal elements. 

15. Attributive and objective elements are 
subordinate elements. 

16. Elements from rank are, 

(a.) Principal, 
(b.) Subordinate. 

17. An object which is necessary to form a 
complete predicate is a completing object. 

(a.) An element which represents that 
which receives the action expressed 
by the predicate is a direct com- 
pleting object. 

*(b.) All completing objects which are 
not direct are indirect. 

18. An object which is not required to form 
a complete predicate, but to express the relation 

*Indirect completing objects are either, 1st. Dative or per- 
sonal. 2d. Genitive. 3d. Factitive. 

1. An indirect object, which represents the person to or for 
which the action is performed, is a dative or personal object — 
Whitney, 164. Becker, 253-4. 

2. An indirect object which exercises an influence upon the 
subject, the result of which is expressed by the predicate is a 
genitive object, or, an object which represents that which is the 
cause of the action expressed by the predicate is a genitive object, 
—Becker, 255. 

3. An adjective or substantive which is brought by the predicate 
into relation with the direct object, as qualifying that object, is a 
factitive object. Becker, 255. Fowler, 165. 

Examples. 
Dative.— Be gave an apple to John; or, He gave John an apple. 
Genitive.— Be boasts of his vices. He gazes at the floivers. 
t Factitive.— They made him afraid. He made the water wine. 



16 NORMAL LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

of time, place, manner, degree, etc., is an adverb- 
ial object. 

Becker, 252. 

19. All objective elements are either com- 
pleting or adverbial. 



Synoptic View of Structural Analysis. 

A. Elements from Form. 

1. Word. 

2. Clause. 

3. Phrase. 

B. Elements from Rank. 

I. Principal. 

1. Subjective. 

(a.) Logical subject. 

(b.) Grammatical subject. 

2. Predicative. 

(a.) Logical predicate. 

(b.) Grammatical predicate. 

II. Subordinate. 

1. Attributive. 

2. Objective. 

(a.) Completing. 

1. Direct. 

2. Indirect. 
(b.) Adverbial. 



structural analysts. 17 

Models for Analysis. 

The tares of despotism were sown while men 
slept. 

I. The attributive of II., — word. 

II. tares subject of IT., — word. 

III. of despotism . . attributive of II., — phrase. 

IY. were sown .... predicate of II., — phrase. 

V. while men slept, adv. obj. of IY., — clause. 

while connective. 

1. men subject of 2, — word. 

2. slept predicate of 1, — word. 

The place where Caesar fell is still pointed out 
to travelers. 

I. The attributive of II., — word. 

II. place subject of IV. -f- YL, — word. 

III. where Csesarfell attributive of II., — clause, 
where connective. 

1. Caesar subject of 2, — word. 

2. fell predicate of 1, — word. 

IY. is partial predicate of II. ) 

Y. still, adv. obj. of IY +YI, — word. > phrase. 
YI. pointed out — partial pred. of II. ) 
VII. to travelers adv. obj. of IV, VI, — phrase. 

He said that if he knew where he could find 
a good horse for sale he would buy it at once. 



18 NORMAL LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

I. He subject of II., — word. 

II. said predicate of I., — word. 

III. that, if he knew where he could find 
a good horse for sale, he would buy 
it at once . . . comp. object of II., — clause, 
that connective. 

1. if he knew where he could find 

a good horse for sale 

. adv. object of 3, — clause. 

if connective. 

(a.) he subject of (b.) — word. 

(b.) knew .... pred. of (a.) — word 
(c.) where he could find a good horse 

for sale comp. object of (b.) — clause. 

where connective. 

(x.) he subj. of (y.) — word. 

(y.) could find pred. of (x.) — phrase. 

(z.) a good horse for sale. . . 

.... comp. object of (y.) — word. 

2. he subject of 3, — word. 

3. would buy . . predicate of 2, — phrase. 

4. it comp. object of 3, — word. 

5. at once . . . adv. object of 3, — phrase. 



f 



TYMOLOGY , 



Parts of Speech. 



1. A word used as a name is a noun. 

Whitney, 11.— Kerl, 71. 

2. A word used instead of a noun is a pro- 
noun. 

Kerl, 73. — Brown's revised, p. 64. 

3. A word used to assert is a verb. 

Whitney, 10.— Fowler, 304. 

4. A word used to limit the application of a 
noun or pronoun is an adjective. 

Kerl, 108. 

5. *A word, not a substantive, used to modify 

the meaning of a verb, an adjective or another 

adverb is an adverb. 

Kerl, 172. 

6. A word used to connect words or sentences 
and which forms no part of the elements con- 
nected is a conjunction. 

Fowler, 374. 

*Since the participle is adjective in force, whatever modifies 
it will be adverbial. 



20 NORMAL LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

7. A word used to show the relation between 
its object and some other element is a jpr expo- 
sition. 

Harvey, 122.— Kerl, 178. 

8. A word used to express strong or sudden 
emotion is an interjection. 

Greene, 160. 

9. The classes into which words are divided 
according to their uses, are the parts of speech. 

Whitney, 7. 



"["he Noun 



Classes of Nouns. 



1. A name which is common to all things of 
the same kind or class, is a common noun. 

Kerl, 72.— Fowler, 242.— Whitney, 49.— Butler, 29. 

2. A name that distinguishes one from the 
rest of a class is a proper noun. 

Kerl, 71.— Whitney, 49. -Webster, 16. 

3. The name of anything which has quality, 
action, or condition, is a concrete noun. 

Fowler, 243. 

4. Simply the name of a quality, action, or 
condition, is an abstract noun. 

Fowler, 242.— Greene, 41.— Kerl, 72. 
N. B. All nouns are either concrete or abstract. 

5. A name which in the singular denotes many 
things together as one, is a collective noun. 

Brown, 46.— Fowler, 243.— Bain, 35.— Whitney, 49. 

6. A noun that cannot be separated into sim- 
pler elements, is a simple noun. 

Whitney, 50. 



22 N0EMAL LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

7. A noun formed from another simpler word 
by the addition of a prefix or suffix, is a deriva- 
tive noun. 

Whitney, 50. 

8. A noun formed by two or more words used 
independently, is a compound noun. 

Whitney, 50. 

9. Nouns according to form are 

1. Simple. 

2. Derivative. 

3. Compound. 

10. A noun, derived from another noun, and 
which expresses some diminution of the original 
meaning, is a diminutive noun. 

Fowler, 453. 

11. Classification of nouns : 

I. Nouns according to meaning. 

A. Common. 

1. Concrete. 

2. Abstract. 

3. Collective. 

4. Diminutive. 

B. Proper. 

II. Nouns according to form. 

1. Simple. 

2. Derivative. 

3. Compound. 



THE N01XN. 23 

Properties of the Noun. 

1. That property of the noun or pronoun 

which expresses the natural distinction of sex is 

gender. 

Fowler, 243. 

2. That property of the noun or pronoun 

which denotes the male sex is the masculine 

gender. 

Fowler, 243.— Harvey, 32. 

3. That property of the noun or pronoun 
which denotes the female sex is the feminine 



Fowler, 244.— Harvey, 32.— Brown, 51. 

4. That property of the noun or pronoun 

which denotes the absence of sex is the neuter 

gender. 

Fowler, 244.— Harvey, 32. 

5. jThat property of the noun or pronoun 

which may denote either sex is the common 

gender. 

Fowler, 246.— Harvey, 32. 

6. There are four genders :* 

1. Masculine. 

2. Feminine. 

3. Neuter. 

4. Common. 

* Gender is denoted by : 

1. Termination. 

2. Distinct words. 

3. Composition. 



24 NOEMAL LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

7. That property of the noun or pronoun 
which denotes the relation of the speaker to the 
party spoken to, or of, is person. 

Butler, 58.— Harvey, 33. 

8. That property of the noun or pronoun 
which denotes the speaker is the first person. 

Kerl, 85.— Greene, 42.— Reed and Killrgg, 180. 

9. That property of the noun or pronoun 
which denotes the party spoken to is the second 
person. 

Kerl, 85.— Greene, 42.— Reed and Kellogg, 180. 

10. That property of the noun or pronoun 
which denotes the party spoken of is the third 
person. 

Kerl, 85. -Greene, 42.— Reed and Kellogg, 180. 

11. There are three distinctions of person : 

1. First person. 

2. Second person. 

3. Third person. 

N. B. (1.) There is no distinction of person in nouns 
except as shown by the context. 

(2.) In connection with every sentence there are three 
parties, or, there are three parties to every sentence: 
1st. The speaker or writer. 
2d. The hearer or reader. 
3d. The person or thing spoken or written of. 

12. That property of the noun or pronoun 

which distinguishes one from more than one is 

number. 

Harvey, 34.— Kerl, 86. 



THE NOUN. 25 

13. That property of the noun or pronoun 
which denotes but one is the singular number. 

Harvey, 34.— Kerl, 86.— Morris, 21. 

14. That property of the noun or pronoun 
which denotes more than one is the plural num- 
ber. 

Harvey, 34.— Kerl, 86.— Morris, 21. 

15. Nouns and pronouns have two numbers : 

1. Singular. 

2. Plural. 

16. That property of the noun or pronoun 
which denotes its relation to other words is 

■case. 

Butler, 54.— Kerl, 95.— Fowler, 255. 

17. That property of the noun or pronoun 
which denotes the relation of subject to predicate 
is the nominative case* 

Fowler, 255. 

18. That property of the noun or pronoun 

which denotes the relation of possession is the 

possessive case.j- 

Fowler, 255. 

19. That property of the noun or pronoun 
which denotes the relation of object to verb or 
to a preposition is the objective case. 

Fowler 255. 

* A noun used as attribute compliment is also nominative case. 
t Nouns denoting authorship, origin, or fitness, are also in the 
possessive case. 



26 NORMAL LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

20. Nouns have three cases : 

1. Nominative. 

2. Possessive. 

3. Objective. 

Note. — The possessive case in the singular number 
is usually formed by adding s preceded by an apostrophe (') 
to the nominative, but when the nominative ends with the 
sound ot s or z, the s of the possessive is sometimes omit- 
ted, especially if the next word begins with the sound 
of s or z. 

When the nominative plural ends in s the possessive 
plural is formed by adding the apostrophe only, but when 
plural nouns do not end in s they take both the apostrophe 
and s to form the possessive. 

N. B. — Case is denoted by : 

1. The form of the word. 

2. Position in the sentence. 

3. The sense of the context. 

21. Classification of the properties of nouns 
and pronouns. 

I. Gender : 

1. Masculine. 

2. Feminine. 

3. Neuter. 

4. Common. 
II. Person : 

1. First person. 

2. Second person. 

3. Third person. 
Ill Number: 

1. Singular. 

2. Plural. 



THE NOUN. ' 27 

IV. Case: 

1. Nominative. 

2. Possessive. 

3. Objective. 

Formation of the Plural of Nouns. 

I. Kegular. 

1. Most nouns whose last sound will 

readily unite with the sound of s 
form their plurals by adding s to 
the singular. 

2. Nouns that end with s, x, z, sh, or soft 

ch ; and nouns that end with i, o, u? 

or y, preceded by a consonant, are 

made plural by adding es to the 

singular. 
N". B. — When ending in y, preceded 
by a consonant, y is changed 
to i and es is added, but 
when a vowel precedes final 
o or y, s only is added. 

II. Irregular formations and exceptions. 

1. Owing to their foreign tinge the fol- 
lowing words ending in o preceded 
by a consonant form their plurals by 
adding s only — canto, duodecimo? 
fandango, fresco, grotto, halo, hid- 



28 NOKMAL LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

algo, junto, lasso, memento, octavo, 

piano, portico, quarto, salvo, solo, 

tyro, zero. 

Note. — The regular formation of the 
plural of the foregoing words 
is now coming into use. 

2. Proper nouns, foreign nouns and un- 

usual nouns, to prevent the liability 
of mistaking them, are varied as lit- 
tle as possible, and generally add s 
or es. 

3. The following nouns change f to v and 

add s or es. Others are regular. Beef, 
calf, elf, half, knife, leaf, life, loaf, 
self, sheaf, shelf, thief, wife, wolf, 
wharf and staff . Wharf has wharfs 
and wharves. Staff has staffs- 
officers, and staves=sticks. 
Note. — Staff always takes staffs in 
compounds. 

4. Certain nouns form their plurals in en, 

e. g., ox, hose. — Child has the ancient 
plural in er, to which en is added. 
Brother changes o to e and adds en. 

5. Some nouns form their plural by a 

change of vowel as, man, woman, 
foot, goose, tooth, mouse. 



THE NOUN. 29 

6. Letters, figures,marks, and signs add V 

7. In compound words the part which is 

described by the rest is generally 
pluralized. 
Note. — Some compounds pluralize 
. both, as, man-servant, men- 
servants, knight - templar, 
hiights-templars. 

8. Compound words from foreign lan- 

guages generally form their plurals 
regularly as, piano-fortes. 

9. A name with a title may be pluralized 

by adding the plural termination to 
either the name or the title but not 
to both, but the preference is given 
to pluralizing the name, considering 
the title and name a compound term 
as, " The Miss Browns" If a title- 
is used with two or more names it is 
made plural, as, "The Lords, Oxford 
and Chesterfield." 

10. Many nouns from foreign languages 
retain their original plurals. 



The Pronoun. 
Classes of Pronouns. 



1. A pronoun whose form shows of what per- 
son it is, is a personal pronoun. 

Brown, 64.— Fowler, 278.— Kerl, 74. 

• 2. A pronoun which stands for some preced- 
ing word or phrase called the antecedent, and 
performs the office of a conjunction in connect- 
ing sentences, is a relative pronoun. 

N. B.— The words "my," "thy," "your," "him," 
"her," and "it," are often compounded with "self," and 
"our," "your " and "them," with "selves." 

1. For emphasis — e. g. "He himself said so." 

2. In a reflexive sense, called reflective pronouns — e. g. 
"He hurt himself." 

Fowler, 290.— Kerl, 75. 

The simple relative pronouus are "who," "which," 
" what " and " that." 

The compound relatives are "whoever," "whoso- 
ever," "whichever," "whichsoever,' " whatever," and 
"whatsoever." 

The personal pronouns are "I," "thou," "he," "she" 
and "it." 

Gender is denoted by, 

1. Difference of termination. 

2. Distinct words. 

3. Composition. 



THE PRONOUN. 31 

3. A pronoun used to ask a question is an in- 
terrogative pronoun. 

Kerl, 78.— Greene, 82. 

4. *A pronoun which may be used as an ad- 
jective is an adjective pronoun. 

Butler, 65.— Bain, 59. 

5. Classification of pronouns. 

I. Pronouns. 

1. Personal. 

2. Relative. 

3. Interrogative. 

4. Adjective. 





Properties of the Pronoun. 


The properties of the pronoun are 
those of the noun, Q. V. 


the same as 




Declension of Pronouns. 






Personal. 




Singular. 


Plural. 




FIRST PERSON. 




Nom. 


I, 


we, 


Poss. 


my or mine, 


our, 


Obj. 


me. 


us. 



*N. B.— Adjective pronouns are: 

1. Demonstratives as— "this, that, these, those, former, latter, 

both, same, you." 

2. Distributives as— "each, every, either, neither." 

3. Indefinites as— "all, any, another, certain, divers, enough, few, 

little, many, much, none, one, several, some." 



32 



NORMAL LANGUAGE LESSONS. 



SECOND PERSON. 




Norn, thou, 




y e > 


Poss. thy or thine, 




your, 


Ohj. thee. 




you. 


Norm, you, 




you, 


Poss. your, 




your, 


Obj. you. 




you. 


THIRD PERSON. 




Mas. Fern. 


Neut. 




Nom. he, she, 


it, 


they, 


Poss. his, her, 


its, 


their, 


Obj. him, her, 


it. 


them. 



Relative. 

Sing, and Plur. Sing, and Plur. 

Nom. who, Nom. which, 

Poss. whose, Poss. whose, 

Obj. whom. Obj. which. 

Note. — What and that are indeclinable. 

Note. — The compound relatives are : whoever, whoso- 
ever, whichever, whichsoever, whatever and whatsoever, and 
when declined are declined by varying the pronounial part 
only, as Nom. whosoever, Poss. whosesoever, Obj. whomso- 
ever. 



The A 



DJECTIYE, 



Classes, of Adjectives. 



1. An adjective which limits the application 
of a nonn by denoting some quality is ^descrip- 
tive adjective* 

Harvey, 44.— Kerl, 108. 

2. An adjective which limits the application 
of a noun without denoting quality is a definitive 
adjective. 

Harvey, 45.— Kerl, 108. 

N. B.— All adjectives are either descriptive or 

definitive. 

N. B. — The definitive adjectives "a," "an," and 
"the," are sometimes called articles. " The " is called the 
definite article, and "a" and " an " are called the indefi- 
nite articles. 

3. A definitive adjective which is sometimes, 
used as a pronoun is a pronominal adjective.. 

Kerl. 109. 

4. A pronominal adjective which points out 
* Proper adjectives are descriptive. 



34 NORMAL LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

an object definitely is a demonstrative pronomi- 
nal adjective* 

Kerl, 109.— Harvey, 46.— Greene, 61. 

5. A pronominal adjective which represents 
objects as taken separately is a distributive pro- 
nominal adjective. ,f 

Harvey, 47.— Kerl, 10.9.— Greene, 61. 

6. A pronominal adjective which points out 
objects indefinitely is an indefinite adjective. % 

Harvey, 47.— Kerl, 109.— Greene, 61. 

7. An interrogative pronoun used as an adjec- 
tive is an interrogative pronominal adjective. % 

Whitney, 91. 

8. A relative pronoun used as an adjective is 
a relative pronominal adjective. \ 

Whitney, 91. 

7. Pronominal adjectives are : 

1. Demonstrative. 

2. Distributive. 

*The demonstrative pronominal adjectives are : this, 
that, these, those, former, latter, both, same, yon, yonder. 

fThe distributive pronominal adjectives are : each, 
every, either, neither. 

JThe indefinite pronominal adjectives are : all, any, 
another, other, certain, divers, enough, few, little, many 
much, no, none, one, own, several, some, sundry. 

§The interrogative pronominal adjectives are : which 
and what, e. g. What book have you ? 

||The relative pronominal adjectives are : which and 
what, e. g. I know what book you mean. 



THE ADJECTIVE. 35 

3. Indefinite. 

4. Interrogative. 

5. Relative. 

10. A definitive adjective which expresses num- 
ber is a numeral adjective. 

Kerl, 109.— Fowler 263. 

11. An adjective which expresses number in 

its simplest form and answers the question "How 

many ? " is a cardinal numeral adjective, e. g. 

four. 

Fowler, 272.— Greene, 62. 

12. An adjective which denotes a series and 
and answers the question which one in the series 
is an ordinal numeral adjective. 

Fowler, 272.— Greene, 62.— Harvey, 49. 

13. An adjective which denotes the number 
of parts of which a whole is composed and an- 
swers the question "How many fold?" or 
u How many times repeated ?" is a ?nidtiplica- 
tive numeral adjective • e. g. twofold, thrice, 
simple, double. 

Fowler, 272.— Greene, 62.— Harvey, 49. 

14. An adjective which denotes indefinite 
number is an indefinite numeral adjective.^ 

Bain, 61.— Fowler, 273. 

*Some of the indefinite numerals are : many, few, some, 
all, ; 'much, less, several, whole, enough/other, another, 
only, alone, more, any, none, etc. 



36 NORMAL LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

15. Numeral adjectives are : 

1. Cardinal. 

2. Ordinal. 

3. Multiplicative. 

4. Indefinite. 

16. Classification of adjectives : 
I. Descriptive. 

II. Definitive. 

1. The articles. 

(a.) Definite. 
(b.) Indefinite. 

2. Pronominal. 

(a.) Demonstrative. 
(b.) Distributive. 
(<?.) Indefinite. 
(d.) Interrogative. 
(e.) Relative. 

3. Numeral. 

(a.) Cardinal. 
(b.) Ordinal. 
(<?.) Multiplicative. 
(d.) Indefinite. 

Properties of the Adjective. 

1. The variation of adjectives to denote differ- 
ent degrees of quality is comparison* 
Kerl, 109.— Harvey, 50. 

*Adjectives of one syllable are regularly compared by 
annexing er for the comparative and est for the superlative, 



THE ADJECTIVE. 



37 



2. That form of the adjective which denotes 
quality without comparison is the positive 

degree. 

Kerl, 109.— Harvey, 50. 

3. That form of the adjective which denotes 

as are also adjectives of two syllables ending with le or y 
or accented on the second syllable. Other adjectives of 
two syllables and all adjectives of more than two syllables 
are compared by placing more and most, less and least 
before the positive. 
Some adjectives are irregularly compared ; as, 
Positive. Comparative. 

good, better, best, 

bad, 

evil, y worse, worst. 



ill, 



much, ) 
many, J 
little, 

fore, 

hind, 

far, 

(forth), 

(up), 
(in), 



(out), 

near, 
late, 

old, 
aft, 



Comparative . 

more, 

less, 

former, 

hinder, 
farther, 
further, 



upper, 

inner, 

outer, 
(utter), 

nearer, 
j later, 
\ latter, 
j older, 
\ elder, 
after, 



Superlative. 
most. 

least. 

foremost. 

first. 

hindermost. 

farthest. 

furthest. 

upmost. 

uppermost. 

inmost. 

innermost. 

outmost. 

utmost. 

uttermost. 

next. 
{ latest. 
( last. 
j oldest. 
( eldest. 

aftermost. 



38 NORMAL LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

a higher or lower degree of a quality than the 
positive is the comparative degree* 

Kerl, 109.— Harvey, 50.— Greene, 64. 

4. That form of the adjective which denotes 
the highest or lowest degree of a quality is the 
superlative degree. \ 

Kerl, 110.— Harvey, 50.— Greene, 64. 

*The comparative degree indicates that two objects have 
been compared with reference to the same quality, and 
that one of these objects has more or less of this quality 
than the other. 

fThe superlative degree indicates that three or more 
objects have been compared with reference to the same 
quality and that one of these objects has more or less of 
this quality than either of the others. 



T H E y 



ERB, 



Properties of the Verb. 



1. Those properties of the verb which show 
its agreement with the subject are person and 
number* 

Greene, 120.— Kerl, 142.— Butler, 84. 

2. That property of the verb which denotes 
the relation of an act or state to time is tense. \ 

Bain, 134.— Fowler, 308.— Kerl. 136. 

3. That form of the verb which denotes pres- 
ent time is the present tense.% 

Fowler, 308.— Kerl, 137.— Greene, 104. 

4. That form of the verb which represents an 
act or state as completed in present time is the 
present perfect tense. 

Butler, 85.— Fowler, 310,— Kerl, 137.— Greene, 104. 

*Verbs have three persons, first, second and third. 

Yerbs have two numbers, single and plural. 

f The present and past tense of the indicative mode and 
the past participle are the principal parts of the verb. 

JA11 time is divided into three divisions — Past, Present 
and Future — and an act or state may be stated either as 
complete or incomplete in either of these divisions, hence, 
six possible tenses, or relations of the act or state to time. 1 



40 NOKMAL LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

5. That form of the verb which denotes indef- 
inite past time is the past tense. 

Butler, 86.— Kerl, 138.— Fowler, 309. 

6. That form of the verb which represents an 
act or state as completed in past time is the past 
perfect tense. 

Butler, 86.— Fowler, 310.— Kerl, 139.— Greene, 105. 

7. That form of the verb which denotes indef- 
inite future time is the future tense. 

Butler, 86.— Fowler, 309.— Kerl, 139.— Greene, 106. 

8. That form of the verb which represents an 
act or state as completed in future time is the 

future perfect tense. 

Butler, 86.— Fowler, 310.— Kerl, 139.— Greene, 106. 

9. Yerbs may have six tenses :* 

1. Present, 4. Past perfect, 

2. Present perfect, 5. Future, 

3. Past, 6. Future perfect. 

10. That property of the verb which denotes 

*That form of a tense which denotes what is true at all 
times (habitual) is the Simple Form. That form of a tense 
which denotes that an act or state is continuing at the 
time indicated by the tense is the progressive form. That 
form of a tense which is used in positive assertion is the 
emphatic form. The present and past tenses may take 
either of the above forms, but the other tenses have only 
the first two. 



THE VERB. 41 

the manner in which a thought is expressed is 
mode. 

Butler, 79. -Kerl, 131.— Harvey, 83. 

11. That form of the verb, which denotes an 
act or state as real, is the indicative mode* 
Butler, 79.— Harvey, 83.— Greene, 94.— Kerl, 131. 
12/ That form of the verb which denotes 
power, necessity, permission or possibility is the 
^potential mode.-f 

Greene, 94. — Harvey, 85. 

13. That form of the verb which expresses the 
will of the speaker is the imperative mode. 

Fowler, 312.— Whitney, 104.— Kerl, 135. 

14. That form of the verb which represents 
an act or state merely as a noun, without affirm- 
ing it, is the infinitive mode. 

Bain, 131.— Harvey, 86.— Greene, 94.— Butler, 79. -Fowler, 
312. 

15. That form of the verb which represents 
an act or state merely as an adjective, without 
affirming it, is the participial mode. 

Butler. 79. 
N. B. The forms of the participial mode are called 
participles. 

*The indicative and potential modes may be used inter- 
rogatively. 

fThe indicative and potential modes may be used con- 
ditionally forming what is sometimes [called the subjunc- 
tive mode. 



42 NOBMA.L LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

The gerund or infinitive in " ing " has the same form as 
the participle, but while the participle is always adjective, 
it is a noun. The gerund may be modified as the finite 
verb is modified. 

16. That property of the verb which indicates 
the relation of that which the subject represents,, 
to the act or state is voice. 

Butler, 77.— Greene, 91. 

1 7. When the word representing the actor is 
the subject, the verb is in the active voice. 

Butler, 77. 

18. When the word representing the object 
acted upon is the subject, the verb is in the pass- 
ive voice. 

Butler, 77. 

19. Yerbs may have two voices : 

1. Active. 2. Passive. 

The present and past tense of the indicative mode, and 
the past participle are the principal parts of the verb. 
Greene, 121.— Whitney 109.— Harvey, 95. 

The regular arrangement of the several variations of a- 
verb in the different voices, modes, tenses, numbers and 
persons is called conjugation. The principal parts of a 
verb together with one of the persons in each voice, mode; 
and tense is called a synopsis of the verb. 



THE VERB. 43 

Classes of Verbs. 



1. A verb which connects a word expressing 
an attribute, with its'subject is a copulative verb. 

Fowler, 304, 224, 592.— Greene, 85. 

N. B. — A copulative verb is also called a copula. 

2. A verb which expresses an attribute is an. 
attributive verb. 

Greene, 85. 87.— Fowler, 304. 
N. B. — All verbs are either copulative or attributive. 

3. A verb which takes a completing object is 
a transitive verb. 

Harvey, 75.— Kerl, 127.— Bain, 77.— Fowler, 105. 

4. A verb which does not take a completing 
object is an intransitive verb. 

Bain, 77.— Kerl, 127.— Harvey, 75.— Fowler, 306. 

N. B. — All attributive verbs are either transitive or 
intransitive. 

5. A verb that forms its past tense and past 
participle by adding " d " or " ed " to the pres- 
ent tense is a regular verb. 

Greene, 89.— Kerl, 120. 

6. A verb that does not form its past tense 
and past participle by adding " d " or " ed " to 
the present is an irregular verb. 

A verb by the help of which other verbs are inflected is 
an auxiliary verb. 



44 NORMAL LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

A verb by which an act or state is asserted indepen- 
dently of any particular thing is an impersonal verb; e. g. 
■*' It snows." 

7. A verb which lacks some of its principal 
parts is a defective verb. 

Fowler, 356.— Kerl, 126.— Greene, 142. 

8. A verb that has more than one form for its 

past tense or past participle is a redundant 

verb. 

Greene, 143.— Kerl, 126. 

9. Classification of verbs : 

I. From meaning : 

1. Copulative. 

2. Attributive. 
II. • From use : 

1. Transitive. 

2. Intransitive. 
III. From form: 

1. Regnlar. 

2. Irregular. 

TV. From number of parts. 

1. Defective. 

2. Redundant. 



PARADIGM OF THE YERB "TO BE. 



Principal Parts. 

Present tense. Past tense. Perfect participle 

am. was. been. 



THE YEEB. 45 

Synopsis. 

Indicative Mode. 
Present. I am. 
Present perfect. I have been. 
Past. I was. 

Past perfect. I had been. 
Future. I shall be. 
Future perfect. I shall have been. 

Potential Mode. 
Present. I may be. 
Present perfect. I may have been. 
Past. I might be. 
Past perfect. I might have been. 
Future, I will be. 
Future Perfect. I will have been ^ 







Conjugation. 




Indicative Mode. 


1. 


Singular. 
i am, 


Present tense. 

Plural. 
1. we are, 


2. 
3. 


you are, 
he is; 


2. you are, 

3. they are. 
Present Perfect Tense. 


1. 


I have been, 1. we have been,. 



mmmmtmmmmmm^mtmmmmmmmmmmm^mmmammm_ 



46 FORMAL LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

2. you have been, 2. you have been, 

3. he has been; 3. they have been. 

Past Tense. 

1. I was, 1. we were, 

■2. you were, 2. you were, 

3. he was; 3. they were. 

Past Perfect Tense, 

1. I had been, 1. we had been, 

2. you had been, 2. you had been, 

3. he had been; 3. they had been. 

Future Tense. 

1. I shall be, 1. we shall be, 

2. you will be, 2. you will be, 

3. he will be ; 3. they will be. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

1. I shall have been, 1. we shall have been, 

2. you will have been, 2. you will have been, 

3. he will have been; 3. they will have been. 

In the following cases shall is used in all persons to de- 
note simple futurity. 

1. After such words as except, if, though, although, 
whether, unless. 

2d. In relative clauses. 

3d, In clauses containing adverbs in which the idea of 
a relative is involved; e. g. '* Beware of the day when the 
Lowlands shall meet thee in battle array." 



THE VERB. 47 

In asking questions use the auxiliary which would be 
proper in the answer, whether it be shall or will. 

Potential Mode. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may be, 1. we may be, 

~2. you may be, 2. you may be, 

-3. he may be ; 3. they may be. 

Present Perfect Tense 

1. I may have been, 1. we may have been, 

2. you may have been, 2. you may have been, 
S. he may have been ; 3. they may have been. 

Past Tense. 

1. I might be, 1. we might be, 

2. you might be, 2. you might be, 

3. he might be ; 3. they might be. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have been, 1. we might have been, 

2. you might have been, 2. you might have been, 

3. he might have been. 3. they might have been 

Future Tense. 

1. I will be, 1. we will be, 

2. you shall be, 2. you shall be, 

3. he shall be ; 3. they shall be. 



48 NOEMAL LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

Puture Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural, 

1. I will have been, 1. we will have been, 

2. you shall have been, 2. you shall have been, 

3. he shall have been. 3. they shall have been. 

The auxiliaries shall and will both form a future tense 
but must not be used indiscriminately. They sometimes 
merely indicate future time ; and sometimes they also 
indicate authority or determination. The Indicative future 
is the future tense merely denoting futurity and is formed 
by using shall in the first person and will in the second and 
third. The Potential future is the tense indicating both 
futurity and authority, and is formed by using will in the 
first person and shall in the second and third. (Colgrove. 
101.) 

Imperative Mode. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. 

1. be, or do thou be. 

Plural. 

2. be, or do ye or you be. 

Infinitive Mode. 
Present, to be. 

Present Perfect, to have been. 
Participial Mode. 
Present, being. 

Perfect, been. 

Compound Perfect, having been.. 



THE VERB. 49 

PARADIGM OF THE VERB "TO LOVE." 



Principal Parts. 


Present Tense. Past Tense. Perfect Participle 


love, loved, loved. 


ACTIVE 


VOICE. 


Synopsis. 


Indicative Mode. 


Present, 


I love. 


Present Perfect, 


I have loved. 


Past, 


I loved. 


Past Perfect, 


I had loved. 


Future, 


I shall love. 


Future Perfect, 


I shall have loved. 


Potential Mode. 


Present, 


I may love. 


Present Perfect, 


I may have loved. 


Past, 


I might love. 


Past Perfect, 


I might have loved. 


Future, 


I will love. 


Future Perfect, 


I will have loved. 



50 NORMAL LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

Conjugation. 



Indicative Mode. 
Present Tense. 
Singular Plural. 

1. I love, 1. we love, 

2. you love, 2. you love, 

3. he loves; 3. they love. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. I have loved, 1. we have loved, 

2. you have loved, 2. you have loved, 

3. he has loved ; 3. they have loved. 

Past Tense. 

1. I loved, 1. we loved, 

2. you loved, 2. you loved, 
2. he loved ; 3. they loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1. I had loved, 1. we had loved, 

2. you had loved, 2. you had loved. 

3. he had loved ; 3. they had loved. 

Future Tense. 

1. I shall love, 1. we shall love, 

2. you will love, 2. you will love, 

3. he will love ; 3. they will love. 



THE VERB. 51 

Future Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have loved, 1. we shall have loved, 

2. you will have loved. 2. you will have loved, 

3. he will have loved ; 3. they will have loved. 

Potential Mode. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may love, 1. we may love, 

2. you may love, 2. you may love, 

3. he may love ; 3. they may love. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. I may have loved, 1. we may have loved, 

2. you may have loved, 2. you may have loved, 

3. he may have loved ; 3. they may have loved. 

Past Tense. 

1. I might love, 1. we might love r 

2. you might love, 2. you might love r 

3. he might love ; 3. they might love. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1. I might have loved, 1. we might have loved, 

2. you might have loved, 2. you might have loved, 

3. he might have loved; 3. they might have loved 



52 NORMAL LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I will love, 1. we will love, 

2. you shall love, 2. you shall love, 

3. he shall love ; 3. they shall love. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

1. I will have loved, 1. we will have loved, 

2. you shall have loved, 2. you shall have loved, 

3. he shall have loved; 3. they shall have loved. 

Imperative Mode. 





Present Tense. 


1. 


Singular. 
Love, or do thou love ; 




Plural. 




2. 


Love, or do ye oi 


• you love. 




Infinitive Mode. 


Present. 
To love. 


Present Perfect. 
To have loved. 




Participial Mode. 


Present. 
Loving. 


Perfect. 
Loved. 


Compound Perfect. 
Having loved. 



THE VERB. 


PASSIVE VOICE. 


Synopsis. 


Indicative Mode. 


Present, 

Pres. Perfect, 

Past, 

Past Perfect, 

Future, 

Future Perfect, 


I am loved. 

I have been loved. 

I was loved. 

I had been loved. 

I shall be loved. 

I shall have been loved. 


Potential Mode. 


Present, 

Pres. Perfect, 

Past, 

Past Perfect, 

Future, 

Future Perfect, 


I may be loved. 

I may have been loved. 

I might be loved. 

I might have been loved 

I will be loved. 

I will have been loved. 


Conjugation. 



53 



Indicative Mode. 
Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I am loved, 1. we are loved. 

2. you are loved, 2. you are loved, 

3. he is loved ; 3. they are loved, 



54 NORMAL LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

Present Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been loved, 1. we have been loved, 

2. you have been loved, 2. you have been loved, 

3. he has been loved ; 3. they have been loved. 

Past Tense. 

1. I was loved, 1. we were loved, 

2. you were loved, 2. you were loved, 

3. he was loved ; 3. they were loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1. I had been loved, 1. we had been loved, 

2. you had been loved, 2. you had been loved, 

3. he had been loved ; 3. they had been loved. 

Future Tense. 

1. I shall be loved, 1. we shall be loved, 

2. you will be loved, 2. you will be loved, 

3. he will be loved ; 3. they will be loved. 

Future Perfect Tense. 
Singular. 

1. I shall have been loved, 

2. you will have been loved, 

3. he will have been loved ; 

Plural. 

1. we shall have been loved, 

2. you will have been loved, 

3. they will have been loved. 



THE VERB. 55 

Potential Mode. 



Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may be loved, 1. we may be loved, 

2. you may be loved, 2. you may be loved, 

3. he may be loved ; 3. they may be loved. 

Present Perfect Tense. 
Singular. 

1. I may have been loved, 

2. you may have been loved, 

3. he may have been loved ; 

Plural. 

1. we may have been loved, 

2. you may have been loved, 

3. they may have been loved. 

Past Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might be loved, 1 we might be loved, 

2. you might be loved, 2. you might be loved, 

3. he might be loved ; 3. they might be loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

Singular. 

1. I might have been loved, 

9: you might have been loved, 

3. he might have been loved ; 



56 NORMAL LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

Plural. 

1. we might have been loved, 

2. you might have been loved, 
2. they might have been loved. 

Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I will be loved, 1. we will be loved, 

2. you shall be loved, 2. you shall be loved, 

3. he shall be loved ; 3. they shall be loved. 

Future Perfect Tense. 
Singular. 

1. I will have been loved, 

2. you shall have been loved, 

3. he shall have been loved ; 

Pural. 

1. we will have been loved, 

2. you shall have been loved, 

3. they shall have been loved. 



Imperative Mode. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. 

1. Be loved, or be thou loved ; 

Plural. 

2. Be loved, or be you loved. 



the verb. 5t 

Infinitive Mode. 

Present, To be loved. 

Present Perfect, To have been loved. 



Participial Mode. 
Present, Being loved. 

Perfect, Loved. 

Compound Perfect, Having been loved. 



THE GERUND OR INFINITIVE IN 
" ING." 



That form of the verb which ends in " ing ' r 
is sometimes used as an adjective and sometimes 
as a noun. When used as an adjective it is a 
participle and when as a noun it is a gerund,, 
as : Walking is a healthful exercise. The run- 
ning brook. The horse is running. 

There is much discussion over certain expres- 
sions like the following which are sometimes 
used in a passive sense : " The fortress was 
building." — Irving. " This new tragedy was 
acting." — Edward Everett. " Chelsea hospital 
was building." — Macaulay. " The nearest 
chapel where divine service was performing." — 
Macaulay. "Which have been made or are 



•58 NORMAL LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

making" — Henry Clay. " Meetings are now 
holding" — Rev. R. S. McArthur. 

It is claimed by some that the above forms 
are correct. The use of the above forms by the 
authorities whose names they bear is certainly 
an argument in their favor, but notwithstanding 
the fact that they have the sanction of good 
usage, the student should observe the utmost 
care in their use. It should be borne in mind 
that these gerunds were originally accompanied 
by the preposition "on" or in the Anglo Saxon, 
its equivalent " in" e, g., " Forty years was this 
temple in building." — English Bible. " On " 
was finally changed to " <y " or " a" e, g., " The 
house is ' #' building.' " " I would have him 
nine years a killing." — Shakespeare. 

Thus has the transition continued until now 
the preposition is entirely dropped and we have 
such expressions as " The house is building." 

It is also claimed that " The house is being 
built" is preferable to " The house is building." 
There is also good authority for such forms, e. g., 
" What lies at the bottom of the question which 
is now being discussed everywhere ?" — Dr. 
Arnold. " Mr. Pickwick's face while his tale 
was being read would have attracted the atten- 
tion of any man alive." — Dickens. 



THE VERB. 59 

Since the gerund without its preposition has 
found a way into our language (which it should 
not have done) great care should be exercised to 
prevent ambiguity. '* The boy is punishing " is 
ambiguous, since the boy is capable of perform- 
ing the act of punishing and the question may 
be asked "who or what is he punishing V i. e., 
it may be either active or passive. 

Since the gerund form is here admitted, the 
•context alone determines whether it is active or 
passive. The following rule should be observed: 
, Never use the gerund form as in " The boy is 
^punishing P to express a passive sense unless the 
subject denotes something incapable of perform- 
ing the act expressed by the predicate. When 
no ambiguity could possibly arise, because of 
the fact that the thing represented by the sub- 
ject could not perform the act indicated, the 
gerund form to express passivity is admissible. 



CONDITIONAL EXPEESSIONS. 



Either the indicative or potential mode may 
be used in propositions denoting condition, and 
supposition. The condition is not denoted by 
the form of the verb, but by a conjunction as, 



60 NORMAL LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

if ov though, or by an inverted form as, "Should 
it rain I shall not go," equivalent to " If it 
should rain" etc. These forms should not 
therefore be considered as constituting a separate 
mode. Many grammarians build up what they 
call a subjunctive mode upon the forms "be" 
and " were " of the verb to he. These forms 
come from the fact that this verb is derived 
from more than one source, one form coming 
from one Anglo-Saxon word " wesan" and the 
other from another, " beon" each signifying to- 
be. "Be " is sometimes, though seldom, used 
by modern writers after if though, etc., but is 
fast going into disuse. Were and wert originally 
formed a past tense in the Anglo-Saxon and still 
have their appropriate place in the English,, 
when the thing supposed is contrary to fact, 
and the time is present. 

In general, with all verbs, in conditions or 
suppositions, the past form is used refering to 
present time when the thing supposed does not 
exist, or is contrary to fact. E. g., " If I was " 
refers to past time with no possible inference 
as to whether I was or not, while " If I were" 
refers to present time and implies that I am 
not. Past time is always added to a tense to 



THE VERB. 61 

give the implication that the supposition is con- 
trary to fact. 

The forms sometimes characterized as the sub- 
junctive, present, third person, singular, e. g., 
" If 'he take" is merely an implied negative 
equivalent to "If he . should take" with the 
implication that he will not. 



The ^dyer^b 



Classes of Adverbs. 



1. An adverb which answers the question 
« When ?" " How long ?" " How often ?" " How 
soon ?" or " How long ago ?" is an adverb of' 
time. 

Harvey, I16.-Kerl, 176.— Greene, 147. 

2. An adverb which answers the question. 
"Where?" "Whither?" or " Whence ?" is an. 
adverb of place. 

Harvey, 117.— Kerl, 176.— Greene, 147. 

3. An adverb which answers the question 
" Why ? " or " Wherefore ? " is an adverb of' 
cause. 

Harvey, 117. — Greene, 147. 

4. An adverb which answers the question 
" How ? " is an adverb of manner, 

5. An adverb which answers the question 
"How much?" "How little?" or " In what 
degree ?" is an adverb of degree. 

Harvey, 117.— Kerl, 177. 



THE ADVERB. 63- 

6. An adverb which denotes the manner of 
the assertion as a modal adverb.* 

Harvey 117.— Kerl, 177. 

7. An adverb which connects a dependent 
clause with the term which it modifies is a 
conjunctive adverb. 

Harvey, 118.— Kerl, 173. 

Properties of the Adverb. 
Many adverbs, like adjectives, admit of comparison. f 

*Modal adverbs may be : 

1. Of affirmation or approval, e. g., yes, yea, ay, verily, surely, 
certainly, forsooth, indeed, truly, really, amen, of course, to be- 
sure. 

2. Of negation, e. g., not, nay, no, no wise, by no means. 

3. Of doubt, e. g., perhaps, probably, perchance, may be, 
haply. 

4. Of cause or means, e. g. why, therefore, wherefore, hereby r 
thereby, whereby, wherewith, whereof, accordingly, consequently, 
hence, thence, whence, etc. 

Modal adverbs may be considered as adverbs of manner. 
For other classes of adverbs consult Kerl, 177, and Butler, 144. 

t The following adverbs are compared irregularly : 
111. > ,„„„„ ,^,.0+ I much, more, most. 

Badly. ] worse > worst '- | well, better, best. 

little, less, least. j 

far, farther, farthest. 



The Preposition, 



Note. — For discussion of prepositions see 
Xerl, 178.— Harvey, 122.— Butler, 132.— Fowler, 31 



The Conjunction 

Classes of Conjunctions. 



I. A conjunction which joins elements of 
equal rank is a coordinate conjunction. 
Butler, 151.— Harvey, 128.— Greene, 155. 

1. A conjunction that merely denotes addi- 

tion of elements is a copulative conjunc- 
tion. 

Greene, 155.— Harvey, 128. 

2. A conjunction which denotes opposition or 

contrast is an adversative conjunction. 
Harvey, 128. — Greene, 155. 

3. A conjunction which denotes a consequence 

or inference is an illative conjunction. 
Harvey, 129. 

II. A conjunction which joins elements of 
unequal rank is a subordinate conjunction. 
Harvey, 129.— Greene, 156. 
N. B. — Subordinate conjunctions may express : 

1. Cause. 3. Place. 

2. Time. 4. Degree, etc. 

Note. — Either coordinate or subordinate conjunctions 
used in pairs are called corellative conjunctions; e. g. both. 
..and, though.. yet, either. _or, etc. 



The Intersection 



N. B. — For discussion of the interjection see 
Harvey, 132.— Greene, 160. 



fiu 



les of Syntax. 



I. The subject of a proposition is in the nom- 
inative case. 

1. A noun or pronoun with a participle is 

used independently in the nominative 
case. E. g. " He being dead, we shall 
live." 

2. A noun used in direct address is in the 

nominative case. E. g. " John, come 
hither." 

3. A nominative is sometimes used without 

its intended verb. E. g. " The proph- 
ets, do they live forever ?" 

4. Titles of books and names of places and 

persons are in the nominative case 
without a verb. 

5. A noun in the nominative case without a 

verb is often found in the answer to a 

question. E. g. " Who discovered 

America ?" " Columbus" 

II. A noun or pronoun used as the complement 

of the copulative verb is in the nominative 

case. E. g. " He is the man." 



68 FORMAL LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

III. A noun or pronoun used to limit the appli- 
cation of another noun, by denoting posses- 
sion, is in the possessive ease. 
1. The possessive case is employed to de- 
note 

(a.) Possession. " John's hat." 
(b.) Authorship, "^wwi's Grammar.^ 
(c.) Origin. " The sun's rays." 
id.) Adaptation. " Children's shoes." 
(<?.) Kindred. " Brother's son." 
(f.) Time, weight, measure. " The ten 
years' war." " A pound's weight." 
" A mile's length." 

TV. A noun or pronoun depending on a transi- 
tive verb or its participles is in the objec- 
tive case. 

1. Some verbs, generally intransitsve, be- 

come transitive by taking an object of 
kindred signification. E. g. " He lived 
a happy life." 

2. Two nouns or pronouns in the objective 

case, one denoting a person and the 
other a thing, follow certain verbs, viz. 
those signifying allow, ash, deny, envy, 
fine, give, offer, pay, cost, promise, send, 
teach, tell, and some others. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 69 

3. The verbs mentioned in No. 2 take the 
objective case after them when used in 
the passive voice. 

V. A noun or pronoun depending on a preposi- 

tion is in the objective case. 

VI. Nouns denoting time, distance, measure, 
direction, or value, are in the objective case 
without a governing word. 

1. Some and nouns denoting manner are in 

the objective case without a governing 
word. 

2. Nouns used in the superscription of let- 

ters, etc. , are in the objective case with- 
out a governing word. E. g. Harper 
and Brother, Pearl street, Franklin 
Square, N. Y. 

VII. The adjectives like, nigh, near, and next, 
take after them a noun or pronoun in the 
objective case. 

VIII. A noun or pronoun used to limit the ap- 
plication of a noun or pronoun denoting the 
same person or thing is by apposition in the 
same case. 

1. Nouns and pronouns may be in apposi- 
tion with whatever may be used as a 
noun 



70 NORMAL LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

2. When the appositive term is long, or 

when there is more than one such term, 
the sign of the possessive is affixed to 
the first noun. E. g. " I called at Put- 
nam's, the well known publisher and 
bookseller." 

3. Personal pronouns are used in apposition 

for the purpose of identifying the per- 
son of the noun. E. g. " We, the peo- 
ple of the United States." 

4. A proper name is often placed after a 

common name in apposition. E. g. 
The river Rhine. 
Also a common name is often placed after 
a proper name in apposition. E. g. 
The Mississippi river. 

5. When possessives are in apposition the 

possessive sign is used only with the 
one next the noun limited. E g. 
" Peter the Hermit'' s eloquence." 

6. A noun in apposition is sometimes sepa- 

rated from the limited noun, by as, or 
or, denoting rank, office, or capacity. 
E. g. " Mr. Smith, as my attorney, sold 
the land." 
7* A noun or pronoun repeated for empha- 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 71 

sis is often an appositive, E. g. " He, 
he alone, can do this." 
8. The principal noun or pronoun in the 
answer to a question is in the same case 
as the corresponding interrogative 
word. E. g. " Whom do you seek ? 
Him ?" 

IX. Pronouns must agree with their antecedents 
in person, gender, and number. 

1. When the antecedent is a collective 

nonn with the idea of unity, the pro- 
noun must agree with it in the singu- 
lar. E. g. " The Court gave its deci- 
sion." 

2. When the antecedent is a collective noun 

with the idea of plurality, the pronoun 
must agree with it in the plural. E. g. 
" The Senate were divided in their 
opinions." 

3. The masculine forms of pronouns in the 

third person singular are used for either 
sex. 

4. The same pronoun should not refer to 

different antecedents in the same sen- 
tence. 

5. A pronoun and its antecedent should not 



72 NORMAL LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

be used together as subjects of the 
same verb. 

6. The personal pronoun them should not 

be used for the demonstrative pronouns 
those or these. 

7. That, as a relative, should generally be 

used after a, all, every, same, and very; 
after who used interrogatively; after 
an adjective in the superlative degree ; 
and when both persons and things 
are referred to. 

8. A relative should be placed as near as 

possible to its antecedent. 

9. When relatives connected by a con- 

junction refer to the same antecedent 
the same form should be retained. 

10. A relative may have a clause for its ante- 

cedent. 

11. The relative what has the sense of that 

which, and can be at the same time 
both in the nominative and objective 
case. 

12. Care should be taken not to use the rela- 

tive what for the conjunction that. E. 
g. " I cannot say but what he did." 



KULES OF SYNTAX. 73 

13. But is often used as a negative relative 

pronoun equivalent to which not. E. g. 
" There is no scene of life but has con- 
tributed much to remember." 

14. As is a relative pronoun when it follows 

such, many, or same. 

15. There is used as an indeterminate pro- 

noun, but only in the predicate of a 
proposition, and for the purpose of 
placing the subject after the verb, E. 
g. " There are many stars." 

16. Than is sometimes used as a relative 

pronoun, E. g. "Nothing occurred 
sooner than was expected." 
X. A pronoun with two or more antecedents in 
the singular, connected by and, must be 
plural. 
XI. A pronoun with two or more antecedents 
in the singular, connected by or or nor, 
must be singular. 
XII. An adjective or a participle is used to 
limit the application of some noun or pro- 
noun. 

1. An adjective should agree in number 
with the noun to which it belongs, e. g., 
One man, two men ; but to denote a 



74 NORMAL LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

collective number, a singular adjective 
may precede a plural noun, e. g. "Every 
ten years ; " also to denote plurality,. 
many a is used instead of many, e. g^ 
" Many a time." 

2. Adjectives belong to verbs in the infini- 

tive mode, e. g. " To see is pleasant." 

3. Adjectives are sometimes used to modif y 

the meaning of other adjectives, as,. 
" The iron was red hot" and should 
then be regarded as compound adjec- 
tives. 

4. A substantive is often used as an adjec- 

tive, e. g. " A barn door," " An off- 
hand manner." 

5. When an adjective is used to express 

comparison between two objects, it is 
put in the comparative degree. 

6. When an adjective is used to express 

comparison between more than two 
objects of the same class, it is put in the 
superlative degree. 

7. Double comparatives and double superla- 

tives should be avoided. 

XIII. The verb agrees with its subject in person 
and number. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 15- 

1. Yerbs in the imperative mode generally 

agree with the pronouns thou, ye, or you,. 
expressed or understood. 

2. When nominatives to the same verb are 

of different persons, the verb must be 
plural, and must agree with the first 
person rather than the second, and with 
the second rather than the third, E. g.,. 
" My sister and I are daily employed in 
our respective occupations." 

3. When a verb has for its subject a collec- 

tive noun, it can agree with it in either 
the singular or the plural. When unity 
is indicated a singular verb should be 
used ; and when plurality, a plural 
verb. 

4. When a verb comes between its nomina- 

tives it agrees with that which precedes 
it, e. g., " John was present, and 
Henry and Charles." 

XIV. A verb with two or more subjects in the 
singular, connected by and must be plural- 

1. When two or more singular subjects are 
emphatically distinguished, or are pre- 
ceded by each, every, or no, the verb 



*76 NOEMAL LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

should be singular, e. g., "Every bird 
and beast cowers before the wild blast." 

2. When two or more subjects of different 

numbers are emphatically distinguished, 
the verb agrees with the first, e. g., 
" Diligent industry, and not mean sav- 
ings, constitutes honorable compe- 
tence." 

3. When two nouns connected by and ex- 

press but one subject, the verb must 
be singular, e. g., " That great states- 
man and general is entitled to grati- 
tude." 

XY. A verb with two or more subjects in the 
singular, connected by or, or no/', must be 
singular. 

1. When the subjects are of different per- 
sons or numbers, the verb must agree 
with the nearest, unless another be the 
principal term, e. g., " Neither you nor 
I am to blame." 

XVI. A verb having two subjects connected by 
than denoting comparison, agrees with the 
first term of the comparison. 

N. B. — The second term of comparison is generally 
written after the verb, e. g., "James is taller than John" 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 7T 

XYII. An infinitive may be used as a noun in 
any case except the possessive. 
1. The infinitive retains its verbal significa- 
tion. Hence, as a noun, it may be 
limited by a predicate adjective or 
predicate nominative, and as a verb, be 
followed by an object, or modified by 
an adverb. 

XYIII. An infinitive not used as a noun,, 
depends upon the word which it limits. 

1. An infinitive may depend upon : 

(a.) A noun. E. g., li The wrath 

to come" 
(b.) A pronoun. E. g., " I heard 

him declaim." 
(c.) A verb. E. g., " He went to 

see the show." 
(d.) An adjective. E. g., "The 

gods are hard to reconcile." 
(e.) A participle. E. g., "The rain. 

threatening to fall, we left." 
(f.) An adverb. E. g., "He told 

me when to come." 

2. The infinitive of the substantive verb 

takes the same case after it as before it. 
E. g., " They supposed us to be them. n 



5 NORMAL LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

3. Verbs expressing hope, expectation, com- 
mand, intention, etc., require the pres- 
ent infinitive after them. E. g., " He 
expected to see you yesterday.'' 

XIX. The verbs bid, feel, dare, do, have, hear, 
let, made, need, see, may, can, will, shall 
and must, are followed by the infinitive 
without the preposition to. 

XX. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives and 
other adverbs. 

1. When quality and not manner is to be 

expressed an adjective should be used. 
E. g., " He arrived safe," not "safely? 

2. The comparative and superlative forms 

of adjectives, preceded by the definite 
article are often used as adverbs. E. 
g., " The longer I study, the better I 
like it." The articles here are used 
adverbially. 

3. Adverbs are often used as adjectives. 

E. g., " The above statement." 

4. Adverbs are often used as nouns. E. g., 

" He went from thence by land." 

5. Adjectives are often used as adverbs. 

E.g., "FuU well he knew." 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 79 

XXI. A preposition shows the relation of its 
object to the word upon which that object 
depends. 

1. The prepositions up, on, over, oy, etc., 
are often subjoined to verbs, so that the 
verb and preposition can be regarded 
as a compound word. 

XXII. Coordinate conjunctions join similar 
elements. 

1. In a series of similar terms, the con- 

junction is usually omitted, except 
between the last two, unless great em- 
phasis is required. 

2. Conjunctions are sometimes used as intro- 

ductory words. 

XXIII. Subordinate conjunctions join dissimi- 
lar elements. 

XXIV. An interjection has no dependence upon 
other words. 



p 



IAGRAM FO 



^fA 



RSING. 



The good man loves integrity at all times. 



G. S. man 



L. S.<{ 



f good - 
I 



the 



Att. { 



fG. P. 



L L.P.^ Q 



loves - 
C. O. { integrity 



.0.1 



at times. 



all 



] d., e., s., 3, 
( m., nom., I. 

adj., d., XII. 
adj., def., XIL 



v., r., t., a. r 
ind., pres., 3, 
s., XIII. 

j n., c, s.,3, 

J D., O., IV. 

prep., XXI. 
n., c, s., 3, n., 
o., V. 
adj., pron., XIL 



L. S _ Logical subject. 

L. P Logical predicate. 

G. S Grammatical subject. 

G. P Grammatical predicate. 

Att .Attributive. 



DIAGRAM FOR PARSING. 81 

O Objective element. 

CO .Completing object. 

A. O Adverbial object. 

n. ..noun, or neuter. 

pro pronoun. 

adj adjective. 

v. .. verb. 

adv. . _ adverb. 

prep preposition. 

con j _ .con junction. 

int interjection. 

d descriptive. 

def definitive. 

c common. 

p. proper, or possessive. 

s .singular. 

pi plural. 

m. masculine. 

f. feminine, or future. 

nom ..nominative. 

o .objective. 

r _ regular. 

ir _ irregular. 

a . _ active. 

t transitive. 

ind indicative. 

pot potential 

imp — imperative. 

inf ..infinitive. 

pres _. present. 

p. p present perfect. 

p'st past. 

p'st p. .past perfect. 

f . p _ future perfect. 

rel _ relative. 

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numerals indicate person, or refer to notes when they fol- 
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